Infinite Information

Intergalactic space travel seems exiting doesn't it? However, the reality is that even with current or futuristic technology intergalactic travel would take a very long time. Galaxies within our local group are millions and billions of light years away, meaning it would take millions and billions of years to reach them if we travelled at the speed of light. Galaxies outside our local group are not gravitationally bound to our own group, this means they will continue to accelerate away from us, in essence we would forever travel into 'nothing' trying to reach them. However, what if there was an easier way? In 1916 Einstein 's theory of general relativity boldly predicted the existence of black holes. Whilst scoffed at by many at the time, he was later proved correct! General relativity also predicted the existence of wormholes! Lets suspend disbelief for a moment and assume the following: 1: String theory is proven correct and strings existed primordially. 2: Black holes...

In Boring Boron , I discussed the formation of the two main isotopes of boron, now lets talk about boron's chemistry. Upon production of boron via cosmic nucleosynthesis in Earths atmosphere, boron descends to Earths surface and over time crystallises as a mineral. Elemental boron cannot be isolated naturally, instead it is extracted in the form of a rock mineral called borax. Borax contains an oxide form of boron which crystallises as a sodium salt, this is called a borate compound. The two main types found naturally are borax and kernite: Figure 1: Two forms of borate isolated naturally, a) borax and b) kernite. The depicted structures are isolated ion pairs, inside the rock mineral these polymerise via the hydroxy (OH) groups. Kernite exists as the dehydrated form of borax. Borax and kernite are incredibly useful. Commercially they can be used as a pesticide and a fungicide for crops on large scales. They are also used as a metal fusing agent during welding processes. This is be...

In 1666 the 'great plague' epidemic brought havoc to London and as a result effective 'lockdown' restrictions were introduced. In greater London, the University of Cambridge closed as a precaution. However, an infamous student of the university at the time returned to his home in Lincolnshire and continued his study. His name was Isaac Newton and during this epidemic he was about to make scientific history... During 1666 Newton began to work on ground breaking (at the time) science and mathematics. These were gravitation, calculus and optics:  Figure 1: Newtons work on gravitation started in 1666, a) planetary gravitation and b) local gravitation. Newton pondered the motion of the moon around the Earth and believed some invisible force was responsible. The story goes that whilst sitting underneath a tree an apple fell and bounced of his head. This got Newton thinking, perhaps the same force operates on both small local levels and large planetary levels? Thus the very si...

‘Boring Boron’ is an unfortunate phrase that I have become all too familiar with throughout my undergraduate and postgraduate study. This alliterative slogan has a ring to it that needs addressing. Recently I wrote an article regarding this topic and I intend to write more in a series. However, rather than wait for publication here is just one reason of many as to why boron isn’t boring. The birth of boron is certainly not boring. Usually light elements such as hydrogen and helium are produced under the extremely dense and hot conditions of primordial nucleosynthesis during the early universe. Heavier elements such as nitrogen and oxygen are produced under the similar conditions of stellar nucleosynthesis. In both processes’ fusion occurs to produce nuclei, these nuclei are comprised on protons and neutrons (fundamental building blocks). Figure  1 : Stellar nucleosynthesis pathways, a) neutron capture and b) alpha process, protons are in purple and neutrons in brown. Oxygen-...